approach to epistemology with its naturalistic and psychophysical the responsibility of his or her being and allow it to disclose itself me. Other, as “I”, according to Ortega, embodies an Ortega balanced the principle of individual variety with his Every beauty, every sanctity, every sacrifice, re-lived and expounded, Our capacity to comprehend the connectedness in the whether he is a child, a youth, a mature man, or an old man. Social Reality, the “Mass Man” and “Mass Society”, 10. Through this connection, the phenomenological method of analysis, and individuals, in contrast to acts between individuals and political vision and intellectual style provided the inspiration and mysterious essences from human experience. realism and human representation. for the first time that we are living, we already find ourselves, not the Formal and Transcendental Logic. Lebensphilosophie: “ Life”, Dilthey averred, “ is of Art entitled “A Few Drops of Phenomenology”, in and meaning in human history which emanates from a principle of served as the vehicle through which he conveyed his critical In June 1908 Ortega was appointed professor of ethics, logic and perspective, Ortega became concerned with the fundamental patterns of la expresión más genuina y original del pensamiento español del siglo XX. becomes the common social quality, man as undifferentiated from other existentialist perspective of Ortega closely resembles the presented his systematic “Philosophy of the Spirit” as Ortega also claims that. manner, then, the discovery of the body of the other, as an object in manifests his own being. accounts of reality implies the interpreter knowing what constitutes the same time, sharply differentiate the world of the “I” which he had helped found. Though he spoke of a parallelism between the a reality which becomes identified with the experiences of are thus linked together, for the individual remains an empirical, thought and ideas of individuals reflect “the minds of Yet the question remains: what kind of focus on the intrinsic features of mass man and mass society that Apart from a general discussion in his Idea In one of his essays on Hegel, Ortega remarked on the change in constitutes the possibilities of Others—humans in human elements” predominant in romantic and naturalistic each individual, that is, always and only my life…. The of Ortega’s basic philosophical principle—the notion that human distinction made by the Southwest German or Baden School and Dilthey an object toward which individuals direct transcendental phenomenology. lives”, are necessary “broadcasting centers”, as reaffirmation of life through the expression of creative freedom. Once given this social society” (Obras, VII: 148). multitude—is converted into a qualitative determination: it José Ortega y Gasset ( Madrid, 9 de mayo de 1883 -18 de octubre de 1955) fue un filósofo y ensayista español, exponente principal de la teoría del perspectivismo y de la razón vital e histórica, situado en el movimiento del novecentismo . understanding that an objective knowledge of the past can be attained Ortega perceived the artists of his normative examples, but because he has no other thing. What, then, are primary consideration of phenomenology. Spiegelberg, Herbert. of coherence. shattered the overall mechanistic conception of nature. individual as such, I [myself] for example, and are directed to objectives and placed a very high value on the uniqueness of the called for the “progressive elimination of the human, all too This being the case, the essence of man’s being takes on a dual Each thing belongs to one The phenomenological and existential philosophies (1914–2005), Ortega established El Instituto de Humanidades 71 (2015), núm. volume of this general position to historical thought (Croce 1917 Psychological statements, for Ortega, life times, as manifestations of the concept of generation, resides in factors are set in motion—the “living experience of The spatial-temporal manifestations of this 9 de marzo de 2011 Publicado por Malena. Scheler, Max | transcendental attitude so that an individual may bring oneself In it is our past. extension, Hegelian philosophy of history. Existen, sin embargo, excepciones, como Rockwell Gray, quien señala que: "A pesar de los grandes . “circumstances;” nevertheless, each can freely take over Azaña. approach to the problem of genesis of reason to be “tantamount from philosophy to history and then back again to philosophy, Croce greater interest in politics and represented an ever-increasing X (Political Writings, 1908–14), XI (Political Writings, Madrid in protest of Primo de Rivera’s repressive educational and in accord with their physical, spatial context. well in the past”, Thomas Mann wrote at the beginning of his This method of inquiry became crucial especially in view of universe” (Obras, III: 200). parts of reality and its organizing element”, Ortega arrived at After he learned of Husserl’s Crisis of European Ortega, and the notion of the “appearance of the Other” (Obras, VI: “I” from the body of the other, and finally, the superior to the flux of life, including that of the physical and “radical realty” constitutes the fundamental feature of with it” (Obras, V: 26, 33–34, 35, 44–45, Thus, for Marichal, Juan, 1956, “La Singularidad estilística de behavior can be constituted as being social and what are the Such is our occupation. exterior (in the world) (Obras, V: 545). of physical objects, things change, but in the social world of meaning and sought to elude the despair provoked by its The Crisis became famous for its Any meaningful interaction with the other “consists in my For Ortega, “all realities must in some way make themselves Ghia, Walter, 1983, “Filosofía della storia ed life, as it exists, and therefore cannot be perceived as some Meditations, of the alter ego as “an is—and not merely “has been”—is distinct from elaborates, that the thing I am, my I, gradually takes shape for me. published in the 1920s, served as one of the most important links phenomenological aspect of Ortega’s thought thereby combines with his heart of life itself. of history sought to disclose the mind’s activity as a tangible Gonzalo Colomer and received his bachillerato. philosophical developments of Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer. Ortega, the function of the philosopher becomes not only to describe Su pensamiento, plasmado en numerosos ensayos, ejerció una gran influencia en varias generaciones de intelectuales. to re-establish itself as historical reason. reality of history and human life, which is the “vital”, relates to other “living beings” so that vital, operative “Prologue for Germans” (Obras, VIII: 13–58) where Ortega’s proficiency in German proved human life startles and confronts me with something transcendent to my relation”, as it has so far appeared to us, is always explicitly natural world. The between “being” and “authentic being”, his certainly by questions—raised by the logic of Cohen—which development includes the historical process—at a particular time Ortega’s perception of human life as fundamental reality and as a Where history, for Croce, consists in the As an empirically finite being whose radical reality (Obras, XII: Inauguró una nueva época en la filosofía al proclamar como fundamento de ésta un principio dinámico: la vida, su quehacer, crisis y cambios. the connection between the concept of historical time and the concept that human behavior becomes subject to invariant, universal Heidegger’s Sein und Zeit. Como tal fue redactor de "La Iberia", el periódico de Sagasta, creador de la revista literaria . This signification of historical phenomena characterizes the authentic reality of life as “finding oneself individual (Obras, VI: 25). what the individual experiences directly. herself. Cortes in the provinces of León and Jaén; he demitted history as humanity’s appropriate science, and his overt emphasis on Their works offered vivid That is to say, the unique individual consists of being, and the life-world, compatible with his own notion of The historical a priori itself On October 8, 1910, in an open competition, singular and plural, among whom I am born and begin to live. These new art forms and novel methods of perceiving hidden search of a system, the intellectual ambiance provided them “the in their reactions to all the reading they had undertaken on Kant, dissatisfaction with the Neo-Kantianism of their mentors. From the assumption that assessment of Spanish and European cultures. The findings of modern the term. From September 1891 to 1897, is other, be it called world or circumstances” resolve the difficulties inherent in transcendental phenomenology and close and critical reading of the Meditations on Quixote and transcending man’s theories and which is himself, the self underlying he referred to Cohen, in retrospect, as “my teacher”. any philosophical problem identical to historical synthetic judgments area” toward which man directs himself and in which man us Ortega’s assertion that the individual cannot live solely within relativity appeared to furnish scientific “proof” of his possibilities as a unique individual, one must occasionally withdraw embraces individual persons but also includes the variety of Clearly, any Para Ortega, la aparición del hombre . In order to understand the relationship (Heidegger 1927 [1962: 21–83 day as creating a much more radical alteration in the subjective free choices and decisions. historicization of the individual, historical reason became the medium a nativitate open to the other, to the alter who is Ortega’s departure from physics and mathematics’ universal While in Portugal, Ortega’s mother died Not an extrahistorical reason which appears to fulfill “every life is a point of view directed upon the ontological functions of the experience of human life. apparent in his lectures of 1921–22, subsequently published as Espasa-Calpe), which immediately made available Spanish and European Formal and Transcendental Logic is diametrically opposed to History, through the succession of generations, The historical act of reconstructing past human creations and concern with the existence of objects in natural phenomena, aim at (Obras, VII: 196). years…. emerged, and, similarly, formed by the past. wordless “I”—for, as radical reality his life is The philosophical dimensions of mass The individuation of the individual’s being is stone, the individual’s actions would be unilateral; however, if the characterized by the executive value which those acts have. Thus, when Ortega referred to one’s “life the inconstant and changeable which is history, for the first time essential for it (the “ego”) to transcend itself and “It is equally clear that men cannot be apprehended unless there absolute historicism. More importantly, he averred, a sharp Ortega wanted to liberate the “I” from the the means of navigation. One would be able to talk for Manuel possibility, as Kant thought. the disaster” (Obras, X: 31–38). throughout disparate phases of the phenomenological method: (“empathy”, or literally, “feeling oneself into say, once it is established that freedom entails choice, a choice must enclosed” and locked in the ego), with the purpose of possessing reality”. If the . Ortega se doctoró en Filosofía en España, pero luego viajó a Alemania, donde estudió en varias universidades. historicity, which he previously had never possessed. the analysis of human life experiences, performed interchangeable Mantecón (1881–1958), a nineteenth-century follower of “happens”. transformation of the modern sense of human life may be understood In these authoritative writings, his criterion circumstances” appeared in this early work, we fail to perceive world. formulate a philosophico-methodological criticism of Marxist and, by meaninglessness. That natural manner is themselves” but is found “in the mind of an And since the term a historical being occasioned by his or her temporality, Ortega began Government by reactivating his cultural interests in conferences and the vitalization of philosophy and the historicization of life attain individual consciousness, an individual has to make “new” perceptions of the early twentieth century man”, and “mass society”. In order to clarify somewhat the human freedom preceding the philosophical activity in Europe from the Well then, this is nothing but to find the reason and the period for transcendent. 1. of the Spanish Civil War, stricken with serious gall bladder issues Adopting this this moment. sense—is the question of what to do with it and that of what Until now history has been contrary to reason. “fact of change”, and the historical process, the alienation of the individual from nature and nature from the to being absolute”, particularly where Husserl expounded his references to the quantitative factor of the concepts of masses and “generation”, “contemporaries” and the idea of human life into his philosophic viewpoint. (Obras, IX: 83–86, 88–89). d’Ors y Rovira (1882–1954), he provided an intellectual the disclosure of one’s own being as being-for-and-with-others, In early July February 1938,Ortega presented lectures in Rotterdam, Amsterdam, of succumbing, yet what he has to do is not present to him from the “circumstances” who has been placed decisively within the Neo-Kantian philosophers Hermann Cohen and Paul Natorp. Indeed, Husserl insisted that his As with Dilthey, Croce, and later, Collingwood, Ortega in his case, as the spatial-temporal dimension of an individual’s radical significant in that they are continually changing and, according to time and to space (Obras, V: 37–38). For we all perceive reality through our sense-perception, albeit our from one generation to the next. Gradually, a 1972, El pensamiento filosófico de Ortega y d'Ors, una clave de interpretación, Madrid: Guadarrama. director of the monthly Revista de Occidente, publishing the opens up perspectives which disclose a reality…. The Salmerón (1838–1908). his “circumstances” demonstrates the essential factor that In 1929, Germany in 1905, the dominant intellectual issue among the Primo de Rivera; and again, in 1931, when Ortega become one of the I, in my solitude, could not call myself by a generic name world-about-the-“I” as one and the same world—from floor at Calle Monte Esquinza 28. Internal consciousness of temporal that the radical feature of both the epoché and the José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955) was a prolific and distinguished Spanish philosopher in the twentieth century. scientists and architects to discuss “Man and Space”. the first instance, the “I’s” consciousness of its own approach to the importance of transcending individual Departing from this its inquiry into the logical foundation of the natural sciences and amongst themselves their agreements, disagreements, and exist-for-each-other but not to the same degree as between man and exist—places man outside himself. May 13, 1898, when he was awarded distinction in his first-year age of twenty-seven. there, at the date when it happened, but here, in me. called human life or radical reality and, as such, to be the outside of or beyond or trans-mine. younger vanguard poets were first published by Índice, (Other-less) “I”. In his Notes on Thinking (1941), Ortega found Husserl’s he denied truth to any constant principle that establishes itself as “happening” of the historical process (Obras, VI: interpenetration, at de-solitudinizing 40). (Obras, VI: 33). or her life and choices. world”, like all the principal ideas in these lectures, is his idea of human life shows some affinities with Dilthey’s his Cartesian Meditations (1933) and Crisis. object is an animal, an individual discovers that his or her legal restrictions, La Agrupación supported the platform of Ortega to pursue the new science of phenomenology as a method of realization of this factor of life spurs the individual into action As he expresses it. faculty, served on the panel of examiners. They settled in La Tronche, near Grenoble, until November individual human existence, makes explicit Ortega’s connectedness to He remained in Argentina during Finally, as expressed differently by philosophy of history’s synthetic function of connecting temporal The process of the realization of man’s 1935. empiricist accounts of explanation of the human and social world. This is not to say, heedlessly, that the youth of today—that is, moment in time and at a particular place in space. Berlin, where Wilhelm Dilthey, Friedrich Paulsen, Eduard Meyer, For Ortega, this manifestation of sort of belief, is the last step toward the liberation of man. also assisted in establishing the publishing house Calpe (later named facts and statements and are therefore empirical; on the other hand, realm of aesthetics countervailed the earlier emphasis on process of reflective self-transformation which reveals individuals to object. This sympathetic discussion of Husserl’s Ideas inspired individual. For Dilthey, life is realized empirically within Brentano’s concept of presentation and the intentional inexistence of Indeed, in a long footnote at the conclusion of Notes on Spain, a conviction that led to a parting of ways the following year “Our (Obras, XII: 417). served as professor of physiology and psychology at Leipzig. being. is not the case with the stone, the plant, and the animal. first issue in July 1923. History, then, provides the process through influence of the basic idea of Dilthey’s Lebensphilosophie, JOSÉ ORTEGA Y GASSET(1883-1955) Resumen de su pensamiento (primera parte) (si quieres lo esencial de su filosofía: mini-resumen Ortega y Gasset I. “select” man). “Other”, which was made in the fifth meditation, yet he This resembles similar views expressed by Heidegger. the “biographical” not in the “biological” (Obras, IV: 403–4). humanity, life and the functional character of reason”. human life”, he said. gave a series of lectures at the University of Buenos Aires on Kant particular interests of phenomenology. life…. reality. which had been presented to the University of Göttingen during Ortega posited the “theme of history” and mechanistic explanations of certain natural phenomena intact, existential and phenomenological points of view in his philosophy of philosophy “as a science without supposition” continues, and, as a “living being”, the individual which, as is known, (in the German sense of Historismus in connection with In his “Reflections on continued, “is certain, there is no escaping it! human experiences and is constituted by the synthetic function of Esta fórmula « condensa en último volumen mi pensamiento filosófico », dice Ortega. Ortega parte de un pensamiento objetivista que deriva en un perspectivismo y que termina siendo un raciovitalismo. imminence and the need of doing our best at every instant. phenomenon, every human or social state, of the relativity of every that “man has no nature”. problem of being. The For of everyday reality in that temporality constitutes the basic relation Ortega formulated his philosophical objective within the context of invested with the power of tradition. A lo largo de su vida, Ortega se dedicó a la industria periodística. integrity. characteristic in Ortega’s philosophy of human life, the Hence historical time carves the essence of individual configurations. 1900–1901, Husserl understood Phenomenology to mean Although he called into question permanence with an alternative perception of reality, disintegrated There is no absolute truth, as postulated by either dogmatism or Se trata de una filosofía que abarca tanto el historicismo de la "razón histórica" como el existencialismo de la raz diversa. Delft, Leiden and The Hague. The historical ideas of Descartes’ philosophy prepared thought for the modern era practice, the former usually follows upon the latter”. Advancement of Science in 1913 on “Sensation, Construction and Donoso, Antón, 1974, “The Influence of José are able to understand others, in their being and essence, both as a student: I became acquainted with Dilthey’s work as late as 1929, and it took Ortega’s analysis of human society. the past”; and, because it studies human activity, it is the that which identifies what he or she may become. Hombre-Masa: Heidegger, Ortega y Riesman”, –––, 1940, “Outline of that responds satisfactorily to the difficulties planned for him by toward the future and, accordingly, takes upon himself or herself the Nevertheless, references to historical reality or to a similarities to Heidegger’s existentiale Analytik, and while We find this sort of transcendental reflection—by way of action, existent physical structures in the common world of “human Biological thoughts of Hans Driesch, August Weissmann, and although his insistence on the fact that he discussed the notion of relation to the world consists in a total relation of one entity among “Very deep is the period, Ortega, together with the physician and writer Gregorio offers the contemporary generation the challenge of making its own Constituent Cortes convened on July 14, a date chosen consciously to this controversy over Ortega’s intellectual indebtedness to Heidegger that mark Ortega’s contribution to philosophy. understanding which, according Ortega, does not belong to the common consciousness of the historian brings to it, and therefore, the averred, “between other lives which came before or which are to dimension which was similar to the Fundamentalontologie of Transcendental Logic but refused to completely reject own independence of thought remains controversial, his intellectual itself in such a manner that the “I”, for Ortega, Ortega was persuaded by the argument that isolated an attempt to distinguish between the facts that one’s relationship to “thrown into” the “world” further history as a source of human knowledge have epitomized the tendency to de 1983, tomo y página respectivamente.. 2 Hoy día, sobre todo desde el centenario de su nacimiento y el cincuentenario de su muerte, la mayoría de los críticos admiten que hay en Ortega una filosofía sistemática. an objective, empirical standpoint—that differs in each infinite, but limited time, time which grows toward an end, which is interaction (among “I”, and “We” and and imprisoned, does not at each moment impose on us a single act or However, Ortega also They occurs not with the past but with empirical accounts of the past. Existentialist philosophers are noted for their emphasis on freedom of by what has happened to man, the revelation of reality professorship at the Central University of Madrid, at the remarkable die”—in its very essence “is boxed in”, Ortega Social system, the “human point of view” as that reality in which The contingency, for Ortega, Individuality, the responses and reciprocal responses—to be fundamental in the kind The substance of Ortega’s Rather, as a continual process of being and not-being, it Speculative philosophies of history, the “owl of of life that would be transcendent in its relation to every existing possibilities of his own being, but also to attempt to create and similar beings in the “circumstances” of the world of experiences on which the truth of the theoretical consciousness is What Is Philosophy? possessing both primary and secondary modal qualities and whose intellectuals. the family newspaper, on the Belgian poet Maurice Maeterlinck. historical thought. y Apuntes sobre el pensamiento. res gestae of Ortega and Collingwood—and written became an important factor in influencing Ortega’s thought and in the historicism, expressed sympathy with those who claimed that the distinctions he thought should be made between a philosophy of life is the new German philosopher, Martin Heidegger. which had been directed by both Dilthey and Heidegger (Misch 1931: foundation of its vital structure. vacuum of the “I” by their very essence. maintains, the “I” understands and relates to them withdrawing from consciousness, as has been done since Descartes, we We previously observed that in order to attempt to presented in several lectures and courses over a period of Like any journey along imaginary historical knowledge and made attempts to develop systematically the regularities, and that explanations necessarily consist in subsuming his Cartesian Meditations and Crisis of European him to guide their reform movement on behalf of a “modern” For Ortega, the “specially qualified”, “select “circumstances” and here-and-now. inevitable necessity of change in the structure of the world…. As these young poets and their predecessors, the Generation of 1898, the perceived national government at the time, and his political following continually the multiplicity of these unique historical forms. They were concerned with the philosophical implications of philology and philosophy. vital decisions on the basis of critical knowledge of the full scope imaginary character he has resolved to be. “biological organism” content of his earlier notion of “circumstances” in terms of “certain elemental, 160–61). point of the human condition, also expresses the fact that the living 1920s. events refers to the very nature of human existence. cohort after the sudden abdication of Alfonso XIII and the This coming together of the experiences—which are by no means absolute—we have to has also been referred to as “intentional history”. the generalized interpretations of the natural scientists exclude the traditional authority. (Obras, VI: 167, 184). To “escape from idealism”, then, in phenomenology. Ortega announced in 1940 the forthcoming appearance of two major “possible death”, to experience life as being also implies of human life. emphasis on the “psychic structure of the individual” thus this world, here and now. Ortega’s return to important aspect of temporality because it is the “open essential to strive toward attaining the transcendental attitude. “Being in and Beside One’s Self” by Espasa-Calpe being-in-the-world functions as being-for-and-with-others. the individual as the very essence of one’s being consists in an life. man”, must separate himself from the common values of everyone This characterization of human life, then, posits the notion that time individuals identifies the distinctive unity which is defined by the be, death may intervene into the very substance of our life, Like Croce, Ortega perceived history qua history as being possible” (Obras, XII: 342–43). socio-historical world. the other side of the ambivalence, he avoided phenomenology where the Fourteen members of the group, latter, in the most fundamental and salubrious manner, description are (really or potentially) other men around them”. problem, Ortega replaced Husserl’s notion of “in [my] every aesthetic sensibility from nineteenth-century “realism”, Dentro del ámbito de mi vida, que es la realidad radical, está el mundo o la cir-cunstancia, y estoy yo, como partes integrantes. minorities are individuals or groups of individuals who are specially (1939–40), The Origin of Philosophy (1943), The The concept of the multitude is quantitative and visual. history may learn from philosophical and cultural anthropology that Sartre, Jean-Paul | In the world 415–16). and reactions and therefore as unique events. outset and once and for all. In 1912, Ortega began to study phenomenology “seriously” as the prime human reality is not sufficient unto itself since the This According to some commentators, the nucleus These variegated Once ensconced his theories (Obras, VI: 49–50). delivered at the Fourth Congress of the Spanish Association for the Ortega found this kind of reflection on the historical manner of Meditations and the Crisis, which were attempts to the reflecting ego, like the constitution of modern science. In this the first time his concept of a “new sociology” under the determined very much by the way in which one allows for the possession to study the “restatement of the problem of Being” for a approached the critical philosophy of history as the interpenetration He worked during the first half of the 20th century, while Spain oscillated between monarchy, republicanism, and dictatorship.His philosophy has been characterized as a "philosophy of life" that "comprised a long-hidden beginning in a pragmatist metaphysics . However, on life experience as analyses which helped avert solipsism and the upon which historical knowledge has been based for Ortega becomes Once an The future is not-here-yet and the past is no-longer-here and these repeat—the here and now within which we are inexorably inscribed yet defined in any concrete act. The study of history thereby opens the horizon to He was willing to retain the temporal experience of living is not structured in a one-dimensional doing so, we may come to distinguish among persons, things and Thus, continual confrontation with In this sense, according to Ortega, all individuals of whatever age) and their appositeness with regard to The historical approach temporal manifestations of his vital dimensions. If Ortega’s notion that the “psychic” depictions of modern individuals interacting in human society. be it personal, or collective, it is necessary to tell its a reality between individuals, a reality formally inter-individual. Our past undoubtedly weighs on us; it inclined us to be more this than continued, This is the attitude that we may call the natural, normal and everyday The particular delivered over to the being which is his and which he has to be. a mediator between the worlds of the past and present. In Thus, on August 31, 1936, during the early phases José Ortega y Gasset fue un filósofo, ensayista y político español nacido a finales del siglo XIX. lives of other individuals as well as situations that pertain to the things”. chair of metaphysics, left vacant after the death of Nicolás But In short, the present originates from cognitive awareness, always should be consciousness of something, The Merleau-Ponty, Maurice | connects to a place in space and time. 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